RET
The RET gene (rearranged during transfection; Takahashi, Ritz, and Cooper 1985), located on chromosome 10, encodes a receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) belonging to the RET family of RTKs. This gene plays a crucial role in neural crest development. Binding of its ligands, the glial cell line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) family of extracellular signaling molecules (Airaksinen, Titievsky, and Saarma 1999), induces receptor phosphorylation and activation. Activated RET then phosphorylates its substrates, resulting in activation of multiple downstream cellular pathways (Figure 1; Phay and Shah 2010).
Genomic alterations in RET are found in several different types of cancer. Activating point mutations in RET can give rise to the hereditary cancer syndrome, multiple endocrine neoplasia 2 (MEN2; Salvatore et al. 2000). Somatic point mutations in RET are also associated with sporadic medullary thyroid cancer (Ciampi and Nikiforov 2007; Salvatore et al. 2000). Oncogenic kinase fusions involving the RET gene are found in ~1% of non-small cell lung cancers (Pao and Hutchinson 2012).

Figure 1. Schematic of the RET signaling pathway. RET activation involves binding of glial cell line derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF)-family ligands as well as interaction with GFR alpha receptors, resulting in activation of intracellular MAPK and PI3K pathways. The letter "K" within the schema denotes the tyrosine kinase domain.
Related Pathways
Contributors: Allan V. Espinosa, M.D., Jill Gilbert, M.D.
Suggested Citation: Espinosa, A., J. Gilbert. 2015. RET. My Cancer Genome https://www.mycancergenome.org/content/disease/lung-cancer/ret/?tab=0 (Updated December 7).
Last Updated: December 7, 2015
RET in Lung Cancer
Approximately 1.3% of lung tumors evaluated have chromosomal changes which lead to RET fusion genes (Ju et al. 2012; Kohno et al. 2012; Takeuchi et al. 2012; Lipson et al. 2012). These gene rearrangements appear to occur almost entirely in adenocarcinoma histology tumors. Histology has not been thoroughly evaluated, but all of the reported lung tumors with RET fusions have been adenocarcinomas (more than 400 lung cancers with histologies other than adenocarcinoma have been tested). Where overlap was evaluated, RET fusions have been shown to occur in tumors without other common driver oncogenes (e.g., EGFR, KRAS, ALK). The three reported fusion genes are CCDC6-RET, KIF5B-RET and TRIM33-RET.
RET fusions were initially identified by RT-PCR, immunohistochemistry, and next-generation sequencing. There is no current standard test for identification of RET fusions in patient samples, but fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) or targeted capture/next-generation sequencing are potential methods.
While the functional consequences of RET fusion proteins in lung adenocarcinoma are not fully understood, RET fusions are oncogenic in vitro and in vivo. In in vitro models, RET fusion products may be sensitive to multi-targeted kinase inhibitors such as vandetanib, sorafenib, and sunitinib (Kohno et al. 2012; Lipson et al. 2012).
The clinical significance of RET fusions is not fully understood. There is limited retrospective or prospective data that link presence of RET fusions to response to any particular therapy. However, this is an area of active investigation with prospective clinical trial research currently ongoing (Drilon et al. 2013).
Currently, an inhibitor specific only for RET is not available, but trials of kinase inhibitors with anti-RET activity have been conducted in NSCLC (Table 1). RET testing was not conducted in any of the completed clinical trials listed in table 1; therefore, only limited information is available about the performance of these therapies in patients whose tumors possess RET fusions.
Multi-kinase inhibitors with RET activity include:
- Vandetanib, which has activity against VEGFR 2/3, EGFR, and RET.
- Sorafenib, which has activity against VEGFR 1/2, KIT, RET, CRAF, and BRAF.
- Sunitinib, which has activity against VEGFR 2, KIT, RET, and PDGFRα.
- Cabozantinib, which has activity against VEGFR 2, KIT, RET, MET, FLT-1/3/4, TIE-2 and AXL.
Table 1. Summary of Completed Clinical Trials with Kinase Inhibitors in NSCLC.
Reference |
Treatment Arm |
Study Phase |
# pts in study |
Response Rate |
PFS (months) |
OS (months) |
Lee et al. 2012 |
Vandetanib |
Phase III |
617 |
2.6% |
1.9 |
8.5 |
Placebo |
Phase III |
307 |
0.7% |
1.8 |
7.6 |
Herbst et al. 2010 |
Docetaxel / vandetanib |
Phase III |
694 |
17% |
4.0 |
10.6 |
Docetaxel / placebo |
Phase III |
697 |
10% |
3.2 |
10.0 |
Dy et al. 2010 |
Sorafenib |
Phase II |
25 |
12% |
TTF = 2.8 |
8.8 |
Gridelli et al. 2011 |
Sorafenib / erlotinib |
Phase II |
29 |
10.3% |
TTF = 12.7 weeks |
12.6 |
Sorafenib / gemcitabine |
Phase II |
31 |
6.5% |
TTF = 8.1 weeks |
6.55 |
Spigel et al. 2011 |
Sorafenib / erlotinib |
Phase II |
111 total, 43 EGFR-WT |
8% |
3.38 total, 3.38 EGFR-WT |
7.62 total, 8.11 EGFR-WT |
Erlotinib |
Phase II |
55 total, 24 EGFR-WT |
11% |
1.94 total, 1.77 EGFR-WT |
7.23 total, 4.54 EGFR-WT |
Novello et al. 2011 |
Sunitinib |
Phase II |
64 with brain metastases |
1.6% |
9.4 weeks |
25.1 weeks |
Schneider et al. 2011 |
Sunitinib |
Phase II |
16 |
0% |
2.5 |
|
NOTE: TTF = time to treatment failure; WT =
wild type.
Contributors: Gregory Riely, M.D., Ph.D.
Suggested Citation: Riely, G. 2012. RET in Lung Cancer. My Cancer Genome https://www.mycancergenome.org/content/disease/lung-cancer/ret/ (Updated December 13).
Last Updated: December 13, 2012
RET Fusions in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer
Properties |
Location of mutation
|
Chromosomal rearrangements involving the RET gene on 10q11.2 |
Frequency of RET fusion in lung adenocarcinoma |
~1% (Kohno et al. 2012; Takeuchi et al. 2012) |
Implications for Targeted Therapeutics |
Response to RET TKIs |
Unknown at this timea
|
Limited information is currently available about the performance of kinase inhibitors with anti-RET activity in patients whose tumors possess RET fusions, but prospective clinical trial research is currently ongoing (Table 1; Drilon et al. 2013).
a In an initial report from a phase II trial with a RET TKI and with prospective RET testing, three RET fusion positive patients experienced partial responses or disease control when treated with the multi-targeted kinase inhibitor cabozantinib (Table 1; Drilon et al. 2013). In preclinical studies in a Ba/F3 model system expressing a KIF5B-RET fusion, the multi-targeted kinase inhibitor vandetanib inhibited cell proliferation (Takeuchi et al. 2012). In addition, one patient with KIF5B-RET fusion positive lung adenocarcinoma demonstrated a response after treatment with vandetanib (Gautschi et al. 2013).
Table 1. Clinical Trial with a RET TKI and Prospective RET Testing.
Reference |
Study Type / Phase |
Line of Treatment |
Treatment Agent |
Mutation Status/Group |
# Patients in Study |
Response Rate |
PFS (months) |
OS (months) |
Drilon et al. 2013 |
Phase II |
≥ 1st |
cabozantinib |
RET fusion positive |
3 |
PR - 2 SD - 1 |
Not reported |
Not reported |
NOTE: PR = partial response; PFS = progression-free survival; OS = overall survival; SD = stable disease.
Contributors: Oliver Gautschi, M.D., Gregory Riely, M.D., Ph.D.
Suggested Citation: Gautschi, O., G. Riely. 2014. RET Fusions in Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer. My Cancer Genome https://www.mycancergenome.org/content/disease/lung-cancer/ret/127/ (Updated January 17).
Last Updated: January 17, 2014
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